When and why Indians migrated as ‘new slaves’ all over the world

People of Indian origin today run some of the world’s biggest companies (e.g. Microsoft, Google), they are heading governments in several countries (e.g. UK and until recently, Ireland) and they form the largest and most influential share of population in some regions (e.g. UAE). But the first wave of Indian migrants was nowhere near this successful.
In fact, they were replacement for slaves in British and Dutch colonies around the globe.In his research “Indentured Labour from India to Mauritius”, Alok Sinha detailed the origin, condition, causes and scale of poor, and sometimes outcaste, Indians who were forced to or lured into what was terms as ‘new slavery’ in several colonies across the world.

Here’s a summary of Sinha’s 1994 dissertation submitted to JNU’s School of International Studies.
Why Mauritius: The forced and lured migration of indentured labourers from India to various British and Dutch colonies between 1834 and 1920 is a significant yet often overlooked chapter in colonial history. This summary focuses on the migration to Mauritius, a small island in the Indian Ocean, was first colonized by the Dutch in the 17th century, followed by the French, and eventually became a British colony in 1810.
The island’s economy was heavily dependent on sugar plantations, which initially relied on African slave labour. With the abolition of slavery in 1833, the Mauritian sugar industry faced a severe labour crisis as emancipated slaves withdrew from plantation work due to the harsh conditions and low wages. Approximately 4,70,000 Indians were sent to Mauritius as indentured labourers between 1834 and 1920. The system was economically significant for the sugar plantations, transforming Mauritius into a major sugar producer while devastating the lives of countless labourers.

Recruitment of indentured labourers: To address the labour shortage, Mauritian planters turned to India, which offered a vast pool of cheap labour. The recruitment process was often deceitful and coercive. Local recruiters, known as ‘arkatis’, duffadars, and maistries, played a crucial role in convincing or coercing Indians to sign contracts of indenture. These contracts typically bound the labourers to five-year terms of service on the plantations under conditions that were rarely explained accurately.
Most of the labourers were Hindus and they comprised upper caste as well what was then call lower caste. The migration picked up in numbers after the 1857 rebellion.
The indenture system: The indenture system was a form of bonded labour where workers were contracted to work on plantations for a set period in return for passage, food, and a meager wage. However, the reality was far grimmer. The laborers faced brutal working conditions, inadequate housing, and insufficient medical care. Planters often flouted the legal terms of the contracts, and labourers were subjected to harsh penalties for minor infractions. The system bore many similarities to slavery, despite its legal abolition.

Living conditions and exploitation: Indentured labourers lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. They worked long hours for minimal pay and were often subjected to physical punishment. Employers used various methods to reduce wages, including the notorious “double cut” system, where laborers lost pay for two days if they missed one day of work. The lack of medical care led to high mortality rates, with epidemics frequently sweeping through the plantations. High mortality rates were common due to poor living and working conditions. For instance, during certain epidemics in the 1860s, large numbers of labourers perished.
Resistance and abolition: The inhumane conditions sparked resistance among the labourers and condemnation from reformers and Indian nationalists. Figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya campaigned against the indenture system. Their efforts, along with the logistical difficulties posed by World War I, led to the eventual abolition of the system in 1917, though it continued in some places like Fiji until 1920.
The migration of Indian indentured labourers to Mauritius under British colonial rule was marked by exploitation and hardship. The system, established to replace slave labour, perpetuated a cycle of servitude and suffering. Despite the end of the indenture system over a century ago, its legacy continues to impact the descendants of those labourers in Mauritius and other former colonies. The story of these labourers is a constant reminder of the human cost of colonial economic policies.

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